Wherever possible, the Holy Prophet(sa) preferred to begin his journeys on a Thursday and would generally leave home in the morning.
It was a Sunnat4 of the Holy Prophet(sa) to pray before setting out.
The Holy Prophet(sa) had established a sound system of intelligence in order to remain informed of enemy movements. Scouts were generally instructed not to speak of their intelligence in the presence of a public gathering. If the intelligence was one to create anxiety, the Holy Prophet(sa) would refrain from speaking of it publicly as well. Albeit, he would convey the news only to selected Companions.5
When the Holy Prophet(sa) would set out on an expedition, it was his general practice not to reveal his point of destination. At times, if he was to travel south for example, he would proceed a few miles north first, and then divert to the south.6
It was a habit of the Holy Prophet(sa) to inspect the army at a short distance from the city. After ensuring that everything was in order he would proceed onwards.
Whenever an important mission presented itself, the Holy Prophet(sa) would call upon the Companions to participate. Then, those people who were prepared for this would arrange their own equipment for war and a mount, etc. Albeit, if an affluent Companion had the power to do so, he would help others as well. The Holy Prophet(sa) would generally encourage such aid and at times, whenever possible, he would provide assistance himself as well.
Small children, i.e., children less than 15 years of age were generally not taken along for war. Those children, who in their eagerness would slip through, were sent back at the time of inspection, which would usually take place outside the city.
In war, a few women would accompany the participants as well, who in addition to arranging for food would also provide medical care and nurse the wounded. During the course of battle they would also distribute water amongst the warriors. On certain occasions, Muslim women have also been known to take up the sword against the disbelievers.
It was a practice of the Holy Prophet(sa) to take one or more of his wives along with him on such journeys, depending on the circumstances. For this purpose, the Holy Prophet(sa) would draw lots, and the wife whose name was selected would accompany him.
It was a general practice of the Holy Prophet(sa) that whenever he would receive news that an enemy tribe was preparing to wage an attack against the Muslims, he would preempt their design in an attempt to prevent the attack. The Holy Prophet(sa) would not allow the enemy to fully prepare whilst continuing to wait for an attack; and then fight back after the attack was practically executed. Moreover, the Holy Prophet(sa) would make an effort for the Muslim army to arrive unexpectedly, while the enemy was unaware. Due to these strategies, the Holy Prophet(sa) was able to protect the Muslims from many hardships.
Whenever the Holy Prophet(sa) would dispatch a company, upon their departure, he would advise them to present three options before the enemy upon encountering them. If they were to accept any one of the three options, then they should accept it from them and halt the course of battle. First and foremost, they were to invite them to Islām and if they became Muslim then urge them to migrate. If they did not agree to migrate, then to allow them to remain Muslim and stay in their homes. However, if they refused to become Muslims altogether, then to allow them to remain upon their religion, but call them to abstain from hostility and war against the Muslims and submit to the Islāmic State. If the people refused to accept this as well, then they were permitted to fight them.7
Furthermore, when the Holy Prophet(sa) would dispatch a company, he would admonish them saying:
It was a sure practice of the Holy Prophet(sa) that upon dispatching a party, company, or army, he would appoint an Amīr14 over them and would state that “Even if there are three men, they should appoint a Amīr from among themselves.” The Holy Prophet(sa) would strictly order obedience to the Amīr, and say that, “Even if an ignorant Abyssinian slave is appointed as a leader upon you, render him full obedience.” However, he would also instruct that if the Amīr issued an order which contradicted a clear commandment of God or His Messenger, then not to obey him in such a matter. Even in this case, however, respect should be maintained.
During a Ghazwah, when the Holy Prophet(sa) or his Companions would ascend a height, they would recite the Takbīr, i.e., profess the greatness of Allāh. When they would descend a height, they would recite Tasbīḥ, i.e., profess the glory of Allāh.
On a journey, the Companions were instructed not to set up camp in a manner as would prove to be inconvenient to others. Furthermore, upon decampment, they were instructed not to march in a manner as would obstruct a path. The Holy Prophet(sa) was so strict in this regard that on one occasion, he announced that, “An individual who does not take into consideration the convenience of others in camping and decampment, would be deprived of the spiritual reward of Jihād.”
When the Holy Prophet(sa) encountered the enemy, he would supplicate before the commencement of fighting.
The Holy Prophet(sa) preferred fighting in the morning hours and would stop when the heat intensified, and then commanded the resumption of fighting in the late afternoon.15
Prior to fighting, the Holy Prophet(sa) would personally arrange his ranks, and greatly disliked irregularity therein.
There were generally two kinds of flags in the Muslim army, the first was white, which was tied to a staff, etc. and referred to as the Liwā’. The second one was usually black, which was tied to a staff, etc. and would wave in the air. This one was referred to as the Rāyah. In battle, both of these flags were given into the care of specially selected individuals.
For every battle, the Holy Prophet(sa) would generally appoint a watchword, in order to distinguish between friend and foe.
Noise and confusion was disliked among the ranks, and it was instructed that work be performed very silently.16
Prior to battle the Holy Prophet(sa) would appoint commanders over the various companies of the Muslim army and would specify their positions and explain their duties. The general principle kept in mind when appointing these commanders was to appoint such individuals over a company, who were considered to be influential among them.
On rare occasions, it was a practice of the Holy Prophet(sa) to take a special Bai‘at17 from the Companions. As such, the Bai‘at taken at the Treaty of Ḥudaibiyyah has been alluded to in the Holy Qur’ān.
In the field of battle, the Holy Prophet(sa) instructed not to commence fighting until he ordered to do so.
Even during the course of war the Holy Prophet(sa) would issue special orders every so often, and would either announce them himself or through a Companion who commanded a resonating voice.
The Muslims were absolutely prohibited from fleeing or laying down their arms. They were ordered to either prevail or become martyrs. They were permitted however, to fall back temporarily as a strategy of war.18 However, if due to weakness, there were some who fled, the Holy Prophet(sa) would not express heavy displeasure. Rather, he would encourage them to exhibit greater resilience in the future and state, “Perhaps you have fallen back as a tactic of war in order to prepare for another attack.”
The Companions were ordered not to strike the face of another person in battle.19
The Holy Prophet(sa) would state, “A Muslim should be most gentle of all people in inflicting an injury.”20
Strict orders were given not to take prisoners until the practical commencement of battle. It was not acceptable to catch the enemy off guard and then begin taking prisoners.21
It was ordered that afterwards, according to circumstances, prisoners should be set free as an act of benevolence or kept in prison if necessary. However, this imprisonment was only permitted until war ensued, or until the losses which had been incurred as a result of the war had been repaid; but not thereafter.22
It was ordered that prisoners should be treated with great compassion and kindness. As such, history proves that due to this order of the Holy Prophet(sa), the Companions would worry about the comfort of prisoners even more than their own ease. It was also commanded by the Holy Prophet(sa) that those prisoners who were close relatives of one another should not on any account be separated.23
It was not insisted that the ransom of prisoners be paid in cash only. As such, the Holy Prophet(sa) came to an agreement with various literate prisoners of Badr, that they would be released if they taught Muslims how to read and write. At times, prisoners of the disbelievers were released in exchange for Muslim prisoners. Even in the case of a monetary ransom, the practice of Mukātabat24 was allowed.
Muslims were very strictly forbidden from plundering, pillaging and destruction. As such, this has already been discussed in some detail above.
It was ordered that even during the course of battle, if an enemy declared his acceptance of Islām, no harm was to be done him, irrespective of how severe an injury he may have inflicted upon the Muslims, because now there was no fear of danger from him. In this respect, the account of Usāmah bin Zaid(ra) has already been mentioned above.
It was very strictly ordered that treaties and agreements be adhered to.25 In this regard, the Holy Prophet(sa) himself was particularly mindful. On the occasion of Badr, Ḥudhaifah bin Yamān(ra) migrated from Makkah and submitted to the Holy Prophet(sa) that, “When I was about to leave Makkah, on the suspicion that I was leaving to aid you, the Quraish made me agree that I would not fight on your behalf.” Upon this, the Holy Prophet(sa) responded, “Then go, and fulfill your promise, the succour of God is sufficient for us.”26 This was the extreme caution of the Holy Prophet(sa), even though as far as an edict is concerned, an agreement which is taken by compulsion is not legally binding. Furthermore, during his Khilāfat, Ḥaḍrat ‘Umar(ra) went so far as to declare that any Muslim who defrauds an enemy or does not fulfill his agreement would be executed.27
The bodies of those Muslims who were martyred in the field of battle were not bathed nor shrouded.
In the case of emergency, numerous martyrs were buried in the same grave and upon such occasions, those people were lowered into the grave first who had committed more of the Holy Qur’ān to memory. Moreover, it was instructed that martyrs should be buried in the very field of battle.
The funeral prayer of martyrs was at times offered immediately after battle, and on some occasions, when a state of peace was not at hand, it was offered at another time.
It was insofar as possible, a practice of the Holy Prophet(sa) to arrange for the burial of the enemy dead as well.28
Those who fought in the Islāmic wars were not paid.
The wealth of spoils was distributed according to the principle that the commander of the army would first select an item for himself from the spoils, which was known as a ‘Ṣafiyyah.’ Then one-fifth of the entire wealth was put aside for God and His Messenger, after which the remaining wealth was equally divided amongst the army, whereby one who was mounted received two additional portions as compared to those on foot. Furthermore, the personal belongings on the body of a disbeliever who had been killed, was considered to be the right of the one who had killed him.
The one-fifth portion known as Khumus, which was put aside for God and His Messenger, was divided such that some of it was distributed amongst the family and relatives of the Holy Prophet(sa). Most of it however, was spent on the collective religious and national needs of the Muslims. It is for this reason that on one occasion, the Holy Prophet(sa) said to the Companions that:
“Except for the Khumus, it is unlawful for me to take even as much as the hair of a camel from the wealth of spoils, and:
It was a custom in Arabia to execute a spy and the Holy Prophet(sa) maintained this penalty.
The Holy Prophet(sa) would strictly prohibit the arrest of an ambassador, or to cause him any harm or kill him. As such, on one occasion, some people came to the Holy Prophet(sa) as ambassadors of the Quraish, and spoke very inappropriately. The Holy Prophet(sa) said, “You are ambassadors, therefore, I am not permitted to respond harshly.” On another occasion, upon meeting the Holy Prophet(sa), an ambassador became Muslim and submitted to the Holy Prophet(sa) that, “Now I do not wish to return.” The Holy Prophet(sa) responded, “I shall not partake in a breach of trust. You are an ambassador and therefore must return. Afterwards, if you wish you may come back.” As such, he returned and after some time found an opportunity and came back.31
When the regions of Makkah and Madīnah had been cleansed of the element of polytheism, it was announced at the time that even then, if a foreign disbeliever should desire to visit Ḥijāz for religious investigation, then he may gladly do so. The Holy Prophet(sa) announced that he would take responsibility for his protection and safe return.32
The Holy Prophet(sa) would remain particularly mindful of the security and rights of those disbelievers who had entered into a treaty with the Muslims. As such, the Holy Prophet(sa) would state:
“A Muslim who kills a covenanting disbeliever, would not even be able to perceive the breeze of paradise.”33
Moreover, the Holy Prophet(sa) also commanded that, “A Muslim who kills a covenanting disbeliever unintentionally by mistake, must in addition to fully paying the blood money to the heirs of the deceased, also free a slave.”34
With respect to a covenanting disbeliever, the Holy Prophet(sa) also said:
“O Ye Muslims! remember that on the day of resurrection, I shall seek justice on behalf of a covenanting disbeliever who is wronged by a Muslim or caused any harm, or given a responsibility or burden beyond his power, or deprived of something without his pleasure and consent.”35
When the Holy Prophet(sa) would go forth against a people in war, after acquiring victory, he would generally not stay there for more than three days. The reason for this was perhaps to ensure that the presence of the Muslim army should not become a source of inconvenience or trouble for the local people.36
In the end, but perhaps most importantly, in Jihād, any other motive except for the safeguarding of religion or to bring an end to mischief was considered unlawful. It was a general declaration of the Holy Prophet(sa) that an individual who goes forth out of the greed for spoils, or for the exhibition of bravery, or for any other worldly purpose, would be absolutely deprived of the spiritual reward of Jihād. In this regard, a somewhat detailed discussion has been taken up above.
